The Deliberate Misuse of a Drug Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Deliberate Misuse of a Drug - Essay Example The knowledge of drugs and their potential for misuse that pharmacists have, place them in a unique position in any society to identify misuse of drugs and help in its prevention. (1). The initial factor in the control and treatment of drug misuse is the identification of drug misuse. Identification of drug misuse in the clinical context is not easy, as it could remain atypical, which makes it difficult for physicians to identify. (2). This brings into the picture the pharmacists, who are in a much better position to identify drug misuse and those who misuse drugs, for dispensing of drugs occurs through their hands. The drugs that are liable for misuse are classified into three categories in descending order of relative harmfulness. Class A includes ecstasy, cocaine, heroin, LSD, mescaline, methadone, morphine, opium and the injection forms of the drugs in Class B. Class B consists of oral preparations of amphetamines, barbiturates, cannabis, cannabis resin, codeine and methaqualone. Class C includes benzodiazepines, other less harmful drugs of the amphetamine group and anabolic steroids. (3). Besides these drugs that have been classified based on their harmfulness, other drugs normally used can also be misused like laxatives and antihistamines. Thus the list of drugs liable for misuse is large adding to the difficulty of identification of drug misuse at the clinical level. (4). Pharmacists are present at the point of dispensation with sound knowledge of the dosages at which the use of these drugs is liable for misuse. The records that they maintain on the use of drugs, be it in the prescription form or dispensed over the counter put them in the unique position of being able to identify individuals misusing drugs. (4). Drug misuse was believed to be a problem associated with urban areas in the United Kingdom, but such a concept is no longer valid with evidence emerging that drug misuse has spread into rural areas too,  bringing into the picture the relevance of community pharmacists in the treatment of drug misuse.

Static equilibrium and the requirements of this principle Lab Report

Static equilibrium and the requirements of this principle - Lab Report Example This research will begin with the statement that the principle of moments states that when a force (F) is applied to an object that can turn around a pivot when acted on by forces, the turning effect of the body is equivalent to the moment (M) of the force. The moment equals the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance (d) from the pivot. This means that the distance increases as the force decrease. The principle of moments has various practical uses in real life situations such as using a hammer to unscrew a nail, balancing objects around their pivots and among others. In regard to the principle of moments, â€Å"the sum of the clockwise moments about any point must be equal the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that point† for a body to be in equilibrium. This illustrates that the body will attain static equilibrium, as long as the product of the force and the perpendicular distance on either side of the pivot is the same. The illustration below strives to justify the concept of the principle of the moment: M = F Ãâ€" d †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.equation 1  Ã‚  Ã‚   Where F is the force of the load and is measured in Newton (N), d is the distance from the pivot and is measured in meter (m), and M is the moment given by the product of force and distance. It is measured in Nm. The system balances because its clockwise moment and anticlockwise moment are equal. A body is said to be in static equilibrium when it is in a state of rest, that is, no motion.

Racial Ethnic And Religious Profiling in the U.S. Essay Example for Free

Racial Ethnic And Religious Profiling in the U.S. Essay In the United States, ‘The land of the Free’, racial profiling of minority groups seems all too common. Many Americans believe that law enforcement as well as many other people often discriminates on minority groups simply because of their color of their skin. Civil rights activist and many leaders of minority groups are pressuring Enforcement agencies to eliminate racial and ethnic profiling during traffic stops and supposed random pedestrian stops. However, many law enforcement representatives claim that the complaints about these activities are overstated and are simply in the heads of the accusers. As a nation with a history of racial slavery and racial segregation, particularly towards any group that is not Anglo-American or fair skinned, African-Americans have long complained of racial profiling. Although racial slavery has been over for over one hundred years, and segregation that ended over fifty years ago, there is still tension between many people over race. Hispanics and Muslims are two other ethnic groups that feel the racial profiling, often being suspected of being terrorists or being illegal immigrants. Racial profiling is not a new subject in America. Racial profiling dates back to the colonial days in America. The revolutionary era there was religious profiling of Quakers because they were seen as being unfaithful to the revolution. African Americans have been racially profiled since the days of Slavery. Mexicans and Latinos have been scrutinized and called out by law enforcement since around the time Texas gained its independence. 19th century immigration laws created ethnic and racial profiling against Asians and southern and eastern Europeans. In August of 1777 the Continental Congress ordered the arrests of multiple Quakers that were supposedly disloyal to the Revolution. The Continental Congress had no evidence, and there were no trials. Many of the prisoners were exiled to a Virginia jail. The captives were released from the imprisonment because of pleas from their families and from a few political leaders. During the Pre-Civil War era African-Americans made up about one sixth of the country’s population. The majority of those African-Americans were slaves, with the majority of them slaves in the South. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 had only a few things that protected actual free African-Americans. Slave hunters could legally capture the slaves that were able to escape. Free African-Americans had almost no immunity from being captured and treated as if they were runaway slaves. The new movie â€Å"12 Years a Slave† that recently came out in theatres shows how a free black man could be captured and sold into slavery without being able to prove their freedom, because of profiling any African-American as a slave. The end of slavery did not end the profiling of African-Americans. The Jim Crow era made segregation legal and seemingly right because of laws. The Jim Crow laws reinforced the belief that African-Americans were inferior to whites. Any African-Americans accused of committing a crime could be subject to unjust treatment by law enforcement and even unfair trials in court. One of the most heinous acts of racial profiling was the threat of racist vigilantes. According to the Tuskegee Institute, more than three thousand four hundred African-Americans were lynched from 1880 to 1950. Mexicans and Mexican-Americans were also victim to racial profiling since the days of the annexation of Texas from Mexico. In 1845 the Texas Rangers were formed and served as the nations first statewide police organization. According to the University of Texas’ del Carmen, the Texas Rangers committed many â€Å"brutal acts against Comanche tribes and thousands of Mexicans†. Many Mexican-Americans throughout the southwest United States and throughout most of Texas suffered from the same kind of racial segregation as African-Americans. In the 1930’s nearly 2 million Mexican-Americans were forced and aggressively pressured to leave the United States. In the late 19th century Federal immigration laws portrayed racial profiling by the national government. In 1875 one of the first Federal Immigration laws banned the entry of the country to many undesired Asian immigrants brought to the United States for forced labor and prostitution. In 1882 the Chinese Exclusion Act banned all immigration of Chinese laborers. Decades later the United States government put in action literacy tests to gain citizenship that were swayed to only help Europeans and not Asians or Latinos. On February 19th 1942 one of the most well known acts of racial profiling was committed. Under an executive order of president Franklin D. Roosevelt, the president ordered the internment of over 110,000 people mostly of Japanese descent following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The federal government believed that anyone of Japanese descent could be a threat to national security. Hundreds of thousands of innocent honest American citizens were forced into internment baffles me, considering that the government would never do that to White German-American citizens even though the main enemy of World War 2 was Germany. In the late 20th century racial and ethnic profiling became an important issue in the public eye. The African-American civil rights movement embodied the desire of African-Americans to be treated equally socially and under the treatment of law. After the Civil Rights movements, African-Americans and other minorities were being treated more fairly but still falling victim to racial profiling. The FBI and DEA perfected the â€Å"formal† art of racial profiling in the 1970’s. The DEA created a â€Å"profile† for supposed drug traffickers, which targeted African-Americans and people of Hispanic descent. The list of characteristics gave agents the right to randomly stop and search people matching the profile; legal racial profiling. In 1989 the Supreme Court granted permission to use those characteristics as probable cause to stop and search someone. Throughout the 1990’s racial profiling was an epidemic with law enforcement stops in the United States. Statistics show that African-Americans were the great majority of police drug stops. In Maryland during 1995, a man with the last name Wilkins filed a lawsuit against law enforcement to uncover hard evidence that African-Americans were being unfairly profiled. After a thorough investigation of the Maryland law enforcement, a state police â€Å"Criminal Intelligence Report† showed that there was a explicit profile for targeting African-Americans. The investigation actually uncovered that African-Americans were 72 percent of the stops made in the state. After the terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001 there was a new group in the United States being racially profiled, Middle Easterners and Muslims. The federal government, as well as the many of the American public became suspicious of anyone of Middle Eastern descent or anyone who practiced the Muslim religion. Although the vast majority of Muslims are peaceful, many people as well as law enforcement began to racially profile them as â€Å"terrorist†. Even African-Americans and Latinos began to scrutinize innocent Middle Easterners. Although President George W. Bush promised to help end racial profiling because it was unconstitutional, following 9/11 the law enforcement began to profile even more than ever. The government focused on Arab Nationals and anyone who could possible have links to the terrorist group Al Qaeda. Immigration Authorities began rounding up hundreds of Middle Easterners for thorough questioning. Although they denied it, Airport screeners began giving special attention to anyone who appeared to be of Middle Eastern or Arabic descent. In 2003 the Bush administration issued a Racial Profiling guideline that stated racial profiling is okay as long as it is related to National Security. In 2008 the Barrack Obama administration and critics of racial profiling began to push for more legislation to prevent racial profiling. Being the first African-American President, it seemed as if times were changing as far as racial profiling stands in the United States. In 2009 the murder of African-American teenager Trayvon Martin griped the nation. The murder was a pure case of racial profiling by a vigilante in a predominantly white neighborhood. Martin’s murder George Zimmerman, a former neighborhood watchman was suspicious of Martin walking around his neighbor hood one evening. Zimmerman armed with his handgun, began stalking Martin and eventually confronted Martin, even though police dispatchers told Zimmerman not to. On Zimmerman’s 911 call he used racial slurs and clearly profiled Martin as a criminal because he was African-American. Eventually Zimmerman confronted Martin, the two got into a scuffle, and Zimmerman shot and killed the unarmed teen. After years of trial, the jury eventually acquitted Zimmerman of the murder charge claiming it was â€Å"self defense† even though Law enforcement told Zimmerman to not follow Martin and Zimmerman did anyways. The Trayvon martin murder is still a current issue that has the nation divided. After doing extensive research on the topic of Racial Profiling in the United States I have learned a lot about how far back and diverse racial profiling is. I believe that there will always be racial profiling as long as there are multiple races living in one country. Racial Profiling is simply human nature and cannot be undone by making laws or legislation. People subconsciously profile individuals based on their individual history and knowledge. People say â€Å"I don’t see color† but the fact of the matter is, everyone sees color. Even the victims of racial profiling are guilty of racially profiling others; whether or not they say it out loud people still think it. The only thing people can do is try there best to not act upon their assumptions of others based on race, and try their best to treat everyone equally regardless of what you may think initially. Its like the old saying, â€Å"Don’t Judge a book by its cover†.

Female Innocence and Violence in Literature

Female Innocence and Violence in Literature ‘For maximum literary effect, sensationalism and violence have to be juxtaposed with female innocence and vulnerability’. Discuss with reference to the ‘Tale of Two Cities’ by Charles Dickens and ‘The Woman in White’ by Wilkie Collins. The title quote is probably too fixed. Generally, there can be no such prescriptive methods for writing literature, however, there is certainly evidence to show that when contradicting qualities or concepts are presented in close proximity, the intensity of the situation is heightened. Milton used this technique in Paradise Lost – assembling a clear-cut universe comprised entirely of polar opposites and without ambivalence or moral middle ground. Hence in Milton, every physical or mental property is in effect generated and defined by the absence of its opposite counterpart. So darkness is the complete absence of light, and evil is the complete absence of good etc. Dickens’ and Collins’ use of juxtaposition in their novels is more reticent than Milton though with a similar intent and evident immediately in the opening passage of a ‘Tale of Two Cities’: â€Å"It was the best of times it was the worst of times†¦ in short, the period was so far lik e the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.† The quote is also an admission on behalf the nature of the novel itself and it is with this ‘superlative degree of comparison’ that we will be made to receive much of the events that unfold, and discover in the process that no such fixed model can properly express human nature which is too often ambiguous or prone to change. Both authors were aware that their novels were to be published as serialisations and so there was a very real need to maintain the reader’s interest between chapters. It is perhaps with this concern in mind that the authors penned their mild heroes into lurid depictions of violence and human brutality since the jarring of good and evil makes for shocking subject matter and invariably what is shocking is also powerful. With Dickens’ novel as with Collins’ the real dramatic tension is created by placing feminine champions of goodness and temperance within a masculine context of immorality and violence. As well as the perceived distinction between innocence and guilt, frailty and brutality, patience and impulsion, there is also a subtle contrast between an inner world and an outer one. A world of the soul, which is implicit and inherently good, and a world of the physical or the body which is explicit and outwardly evil. In both novels, the language separates in a s imilar way – outwardly graphic and sensational, yet with a subtle and often more powerful subtext. The texts of both novels are founded in conflict and perpetuate a sense of tension so it serves us well to do close readings of a short passage as much as an overview of the whole. We shall take first this passage from Wilkie Collins’ ‘The Woman in White’: â€Å"The boat-house was large enough to hold us all, but Sir Percival remained outside trimming the last new stick with his pocket-axe. We three women found plenty of room on the large seat. Laura took her work and Madame Fosco began her cigarettes. I, as usual had nothing to do. My hands always were and always will be as awkard as a man’s. The Count good humouredly took a stool many sizes too small for him, and balanced himself on it with his back against the side of the shed, which creaked and groaned under his weight. He put the pagoda cage on his lap, and let out the mice to crawl over him as usual. They are pretty innocent-looking little creatures, but the sight of them creeping about a man’s body is for some reason not pleasant to me. It excites a strange responsive creeping in my own nerves and suggests hideous ideas of men dying in prison with the crawling creatures of the dungeon preying on them undisturbed.† Marian’s narration begins as ‘matter of fact’ and becomes imagined and complex. From the start of the passage to the end her attention is drawn from objects and characters far away from her, closer in to those surrounding her, then to her own self and identity, and finally the introspective and private thoughts of her own mind. The first sentence raises the idea of a separate world of violence lying outside Marian’s own. She highlights Sir Percival’s decision to remain ‘outside’ despite the boat-house being ‘large enough to hold us all’ so she could be implying an obstinacy in his actions or perhaps more likely, she may be perplexed by his behaviour. The very action of trimming a stick with a pocket axe carries various connotations with violence and masculine sexuality. It is of course an arbitrary occupation of his time and serves as a meaningless and almost sinister method of disconnection between himself and the others an d hence a source of confusion. Marian’s next comment ‘We three women’, at once it unites the women together as a concept or a quality of femininity and further separates them from the singular identity of Sir Percival. Marian’s language is deeply characterised by ideas of containment. The ladies sit inside and they are easily accommodated: ‘we three women found plenty of room on the large seat’. This statement contrasts directly with her comment about the Count a little later, who ‘took a stool many sizes too small for him, and balanced himself on it with his back against the side of the shed, which creaked and groaned under his weight’ – a sentence which trails on for longer, more involved and awkward. The Count and Sir Percival, by their cumbersome inflexibility, rebel against and test the physical world. Their presence is more palpable and harder to contain unlike the women who are compliant, slight and ensconced by the physical world. This whole image is a dilution of the revolutionary world as emasculated, savage and violent – the container and oppressor of feminine goodness. As we have seen the direction of Marian’s thought is inward but her language and the use of symbolism give an added suggestion of moving from an open, free space, to a confined, interior space. Initially Marian uses words like ‘outside’ and phrases such as ‘plenty of room’ but her train of thought finishes in reflection on ‘Pagoda Cages’, on ‘prison’ and ‘the dungeon’. Herein lies the horror for Marian. Her language is the language of oppression and confinement: ‘My hands always were and always will be as awkward as a mans.’ Her use of the phrase ‘always were and always will be’ excludes all sense of hope and the awkwardness of the repetition is emblematic of her bitterness and resent of the awkwardness of her situation. Her use of the word awkward itself is interesting, used as much no doubt as the implied opposite of delicate or relaxed and the whole image of a woman being burdened wit h the tools of man’s violence towards the world is a powerful one. The shift in Marian’s observation of mice running freely over the Count’s person, to an imagined picture of rats crawling over a morbid prisoner is a much more tangible instance of frailty and innocence played against sensational horror. The real power of the text here lies in the compression of a quaint image into a one which repulses. But further it suggests there is a macabre bent in Marian or an inclination of thought towards something deeper and darker than her reality. Can it be that she relates with both images – the ‘pretty-innocent looking creatures (my italics)’, how she and women seem to be, or should aspire to become, and ‘men dying in prison with the crawling creatures of the dungeon preying on them undisturbed’, how she and other really feel? We will turn now to the following passage from the last chapter of Dickens’ ‘A Tale of Two Cities’: ‘The second tumbril empties and moves on: the third comes up. Crash! – And the knitting-women, never faltering or pausing in their work, count two. The supposed Evremonde descends, and the seamstress is lifted out next after him. He has not relinquished her patient hand in getting out, but still holds it as he promised. He gently places her with her back to the crashing engine that constantly whirs up and falls, and she looks into his face and thanks him. â€Å"But for you dear stranger, I should not be so composed, for I am naturally a poor little thing, faint of heart; nor should I have been able to raise my thoughts to Him who was put to death, that we might have hope and comfort here to-day. I think you were sent to me by Heaven†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ The two stand in the fast-thinning throng of victims, but they speak as if they were alone. Eye to eye, voice to voice, hand to hand, heart to heart, these two children of the Universal Mother, else so wide apart and differing, have come together on the dark highway, to repair home together, and to rest in her bosom.’ Dickens’ tale is related in the third person and there is consequently less room for personal introspection, the like we saw in Marian’s narration (although Dicken’s does dispense with this convention to allow a voice to Carton’s final thoughts in the last lines). However, Dickens’ presents a more sensational description of the world outside his characters. The opening of the passage here imparts a sense of horror by the alarming regularity and routine of the public execution. The relentless killing punctuated consistently by the knitting women as they count towards the heroes’ death. Throughout this passage, Dickens offsets the outside world of motion and with the interior capsule of calm between Carton and the tragic seamstress. The language of impending doom – ‘empties and moves on’, ‘never faltering or pausing’, ‘the crashing engine that constantly whirs up and falls’, and the ‘fast-thin ning throng of victims’, is juxtaposed with language of stillness, timelessness and peace – ‘not relinquished’ ‘her patient hand’, ‘still holds’, ‘so composed’ ‘stand alone’. Evident in this passage is a contradiction between the real world of horror and the machinery of violence, and the seamstress’ admission of her own vulnerability – ‘I am naturally a poor little thing, faint of heart’. But where in previous parts of the novel this opposition was played out with the effect of crushing feminine innocence and creating suspense and horror as a consequence, at this point the woman finds strength in her company. In fact the arrangement of her statement reinforces this idea. ‘But for you dear stranger’, and ‘my thoughts to Him’ surround her admission ‘I am naturally a poor little thing’ – she takes comfort between these objects. They su rround her and protect her from the brutality of the outside world. In this closing chapter of the novel, when finally the fragility of female innocence collides with the horror and mechanics of the revolution, Dickens actually draws a crucial separation between the two concepts. United in love, the protagonists fall away from the physical world – the guillotine a machine which by designs cuts people in two: ‘The two stand in the fast thinning throng of victims, but they speak as if they were alone’. In this final point of the novel – the characters break free from their context. In fact, Dickens uses different paragraphs to describe the human moments and the fall of the tumbril blade as though the outside influences have no control over the characters. ‘Eye to eye, voice to voice, hand to hand, heart to heart,’ where the novel has been an exploration of pairs of opposites, the best of times, and the worst of times, it champions as it denouement pairs of equals and connection rather than argument. The passage u nites two concepts into one, so ‘The two stand’ become in transformation ‘they speak’. Though they are ‘two children’, they are born of one ‘Universal Mother’, and though ‘so wide apart’ they have ‘come together’. What is important here, is that Dickens has chosen to create a different literary effect at the end of his novel from that outlined in the title, by a confrontation of equals rather than opposites. It may show that the collision of brutality and compassion work to create shock and suspense during reading but it is with one motivation that a reader continues through these moments and that is to reach a fitting harmony.

The Hidden Hierarchy of Silences :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays Super Bowl

The Hidden Hierarchy of Silences On the night of February second, 2003, family members in thousands of U.S. households gathered together to participate in what is considered by many to be a great and important American tradition, the NFL Super Bowl. After kick-off, in most respects, everyone watched a game that had all the elements of a typical all American football game. Big muscled men threw a leather ball around, ran with it, and violently rammed into each other to the tune of a cheering audience. There were women on the sidelines wearing very tight, revealing clothing dancing for the crowd, and, after about two hours of all this, it was time for the traditional halftime performance of music and entertainment. It was during this performance where many argue that things began to shift slightly from the norm. For the second year, the performance was going to be produced by MTV, and perhaps in an effort to get more female and younger viewers tuned in, MTV advertised its performance of Justin Timberlake which promised "to shock". Timberlake ended the performance with a singing and dancing collaboration with Janet Jackson, and faithful to MTV's reputation, there was not a lot of singing, but plenty of over the clothing – crotch grabbing and groping of the singers themselves and each other. However, it was Justin's final movement after the words, "I'm gonna have you naked by the end of this song", where he ripped off part of Jackson's costume exposing her right breast, that triggered enraged viewers across the nation to cover their children's eyes, and call the FCC for justice. Although an account of these calls is not available for public scrutiny, their sentiments are probably of a similar range to what newspaper and magazine articles today are commenting on the recent incident in an NFL skit. Before the Monday Night Football game on November 15, Terrell Owens sees Desperate Housewives costar Nicollette Sheridan in the locker room wearing only a towel, and says in so many words that he will stay and have sex with her instead of going to the game. This event is now the most talked about obscenity broadcasting controversy since the Justin/Jackson event, and many are suspicious that it's no coincidence that the common denominator of suggested interracial sexual relations - is hiding deep within the public fury. Foucault, an expert on the societal obsessions with sex in the 18th century, takes note of what the different public discourses about sex can say about a society and their private views on sexual controversies.

The Fatal Grudge :: essays research papers fc

â€Å"For I have decided to send Ad Patres[Spanish for â€Å"to the fathers†] the feminists who have ruined my life.† -Marc Lepine, suicide note. It was the early evening of December 6, 1989; just nineteen day’s before Christmas. The students of Montreal’s Ecole Polytechnique were just finishing their classes when a stranger walked into the engineering building. Like a sadistic Santa he carried a Sturm Ruger Mini-14 automatic rifle, knives and bandoleers of ammunition. The stranger was Marc Lepine. At the end of the day he would be dead along with 14 women; leaving a suicide note blaming feminists for his actions. Marc Lepine’s brutal actions are a shocking reality check of the growing number of savage acts done by men towards women. There has always been a difference between men and women and how both treat each other. You could say the two genders secretly hold a grudge against one another. This grudge will on occasion surface and cause conflict between the two; either in a peaceful matter or violent outburst. What causes this resentment? In the women’s case many feel they do not have the same privileges that men have. On the other hand, some men say that women are now stealing the privileges which were hard enough to attain while competing with their own gender. Stevie Cameron also recognises this and states â€Å"Sharing power is not easy for anyone and men do not find it easy to share among themselves, much less with a group of equally talented, able women.† (2) This tension is then the hotbed from which these acts of violence must originate from. Women are considered by most men to be less physically inclined. Is this true? In the past men have always been the symbols of strength and fortitude, while the women represented the more gentler and timid qualities. This unfair outlook is alive and well in today’s day and age. Although it’s not nearly supported as strongly as it once was it still sits in our subconscious, dictating our actions as a society. For instance, if you took a 18 year old boy and a 18 year old girl, they have a very different set of rules to follow. These rules are set by their parents who make them based on the previous presumptions. So the girl will find it unfair that the boy, who is considered her equal, can go where he wants, when he wants.

Emile Durkheim – Division of Labor

DIVISION OF LABOR IN SOCIETY The Division of Labor in Society by Emile Durkheim explains how in the modern societies the division of labor affects individuals and society contradicting Marx’s belief that the division of labor will all result to alienation. Durkheim argued that the division of labor is not necessarily â€Å"bad† for it â€Å"increases both the productive capacity and skill of the workman; it is the necessary condition for the intellectual and material development of societies; it is the source of civilization. More importantly, it creates a feeling of solidarity among the people. For Durkheim, the result of Division of Labor is positive for there is no need for competition in the sense of struggling just to survive but the division of labor may signify that there are sufficient material resources for all in the society, and in this division allows a certain form of cooperation and because people need each other this produces a solidarity in the society. *As we noted previously, Marx saw both alienation and class conflict as inevitable (or â€Å"normal†) in capitalist societies.By contrast, rather than seeing social conflict as a â€Å"normal† condition of capitalism, Durkheim maintained that anomie results only in â€Å"abnormal† conditions of overspecialization, when the rules of capitalism become too rigid and individuals are â€Å"forced† into a particular position in the division of labor. *Causes of Division of Labor: division of labor develops regularly as history proceeds. This fact certainly depends on causes that are likewise constant, causes that we shall investigate. † (p. 179). â€Å"THe increase in the DOL is therefore due to the fact that the social segments lose their individuality, that the partitions dividing them become more permeable. IN short, there occurs between them a coalescence that renders the social substance free to enter upon new combinations. † {p. 141} The key to the expansion of the DOL is the increase in social interaction, particularly functional differentiation. * This is what gives moral value to the division of labor. Through it, the individual becomes aware of his dependence upon society; from it come the forces which keep him in check and restrain him.In short, since the division of labor becomes the chief source of social solidarity, it becomes, at the same time, the foundation of the moral order. * Moreover, far from being trammeled by the progress of specialization, individual personality develops with the division of labor. To be a person is to be an autonomous source of action. Man acquires this quality only in so far as there is something in him which is his alone and which individualizes him, as he is something more than a simple incarnation of the generic type of his race and his group.The division of labor itself contributes to this enfranchisement, for individual natures, while specializing, become more complex, and by that are in part freed from collective action and hereditary influences which can only enforce themselves upon simple, general things. The most visible example of social solidarity that Durkheim mentioned was law. Law is the organization of social life in its most stable and precise form. The classification of law depends on the type of solidarity corresponds to it. The first type of law is the repressive law which imposes a fine or injury on the perpetrator.The second one is the restitutory laws which refer to restoring the previous relationship which have been disturbed from before the crime was committed. Repressive law tends to stay diffused througout the society, restitutory law works through more specialized bodies like in courts, magistrates and lawyers. *Despite the removed role of restitutory law from socirty, society still intervenes in restitutory sanctioning. The formation of a contract directly concerns the parties involved: nonetheless, id a contract has a binding forc e, it is a society which confers that force.If society does not give its blessing to the obligations that have been contracted, then these obligations are reduced to only moral promises. Hence the presence of society in restitutory law, although not necessarily felt, is nonetheless essential. negative control – regulations which make a person refrain from acting ex. do not help a farmere with his crop, simply prevent him from stealing his neighbor's positive control – regulations which make a person act ex. impose a certain method of farming upon a farmer. Mechanical Solidarity or solidarity by similarities, it is deeply rooted in everyone doing or feeling the same thing.It is the type of solidarity that is associated with repressive laws that corresponds to crimes resulting in repressive punishments. Durkheim pointed out in his book that how the repressive or penal rules demonstrates the strength of resistance of collective response to a crime. Thus it is now called c ollective consciousness which is the â€Å"totality of beliefs and sentiments common to average citizens of the same society forms a determinate system which has its own life. † Therefore, it is summarized as an act is only criminal if it offends the â€Å"strong, well-defined states of collective consciousness. *Mechanical solidarity is typified by feelings of likeness. Mechanical solidarity is rooted in everyone doing/feeling the same thing. Durkheim maintained that this type of solidarity is characteristic of small, traditional societies. In these â€Å"simple† societies, circumstances compel individuals to be generalists involved in the production and distribution of a variety of goods. Indeed, in small, traditional societies, specialization in one task to the exclusion of others is not possible because the society depends on each individual providing a host of contributions to the group.For instance, men, women, and children are often all needed to pick crops at harvest time, and all partake in the harvest-time celebrations as well. Durkheim argued that a significant social consequence of the shared work experience characteristic of traditional societies is a shared collective conscience. People in traditional societies tend to feel â€Å"one and the same,† and it is this feeling of â€Å"oneness† that is integral in the maintenance of social order. Yet, Durkheim saw that in large, complex societies, this type of solidarity was waning.In large, modern societies, labor is specialized; people do not necessarily all engage in the same work or share the same ideas and beliefs. *â€Å"Since the rules are inscribed upon everyone's consciousness, all are aware of them and feel they are founded upon right. † â€Å"Undoubtedly if an act is punished, it is because it is contrary to a mandatory rule, but this rule is not expressly spelt out. There can be only one reason for this: it is because the rule is known and accepted by ev erybody. † (p. 5) â€Å"we should not say that an act offends the common consciousness because it is criminal, but that it is criminal because it offend that consciousness. † (p. 42) [133] *What separates repressive law from civil law – law that simply restores previous order? First, recall that crimes are those things that affect the common consciousness: Thus, â€Å"†¦since the sentiments that crime offends within a single society are the most universally collective ones of all, since they represent especially powerful states of the common consciousness, they cannot possibly brook any opposition. †¦. e need a more violent form of satisfaction. † (p. 55) The kinds of offenses that give rise to repressive law assault transcendent values, â€Å"when we demand the repression of crime it is not because we are seeking a personal vengeance, but rather vengeance for something sacred which we vaguely feel is more or less outside and above us. † ( p. 56) At this point (right around p. 57 and 58), E. D. makes a subtle and important point. That punishing criminal activity reinforces the common consciousness. â€Å"Crime therefore draws honest consciousnesses together, concentrating them. † He provides an example.In a small town, everyone talks about the criminal scandal. Just like when horrible things happen in the news, we respond. By discussing the crime and punishment with people we know, we reinforce our opinion about the immorality of the action. â€Å"In short, since it is the common consciousness that is wounded, it must also be this that resists; consequently, resistance must be collective. † But why this resistance is organized remains to be explained. Historically, crimes were judged by the WHOLE people, then as society progressed, certain samples of people and judges took the place of the whole. bottom of p. 59) – the organization into courts is a division of labor response: the world got bigger, and needed more people to split up the work of policing the common consciousness. (Note, of course, that this is exactly the moment that greater individual variation in what, exactly, people have in common starts to magnify). â€Å"Thus, it is certainly the nature of the collective sentiments that accounts for punishment, and consequently for crime. † Organic Solidarity, on the other hand is characterized with the other type of law which is the restitutory law.Organic solidarity assumes that people are different from each other and they are interdependent with other forming a complex web of cooperative associations. Unlike the mechanical solidarity, the solidarity in this case is from each person cultivating individual differences and knowing that each one is doing something for the betterment of everyone. Moreover, Durkheim said that the organic solidarity arises only when the division of labor is spontaneous or voluntary. Because the division of labor is pushed too far the n it becomes dangerous for the individual for t may result to the isolation of in their special activity or skill. Thus making the division of labor a source of disintegration for the individuals and the society. *†Damages awarded have no penal character: they are simply a means of putting back the clock so as to restore the past, so far as possible, to its normal state. † (p. 69) †¢ Restitutory laws put the world back together — they restore what was before. †¢ Restitutory laws are not (usually) part of the collective common consciousness. Instead, they apply to very specific areas (corporate law, accounting law, housing law, contract law, etc. ) and, E. D. laims, a violation of such a law does not elicit the emotional need for expiation that a criminal offense does. â€Å"The idea that murder can be tolerates sets us up in arms, but we very readily accept that the law of inheritance might be modified, †¦. Since these prescriptions do not correspo nd to any feeling within us, an as generally we don no know their scientific justification, since this science does not yet exist, they have no deep roots in most of us. † [137] †¢ Since restitutory laws do not affect everyone, the solidarity that restitutory laws relate to cannot rest on a uniform similarity across everyone in the group. For Durkheim, organic solidarity refers to a type of solidarity in which each person is interdependent with others, forming a complex web of cooperative associations. In such situations, solidarity (or a feeling of â€Å"oneness†) comes not from each person believing/doing the same thing, but from each person cultivating individual differences and knowing that each is doing her part for the good of the whole. Thus, Durkheim argued that the increasing specialization and individuation so readily apparent in modern industrial societies does not necessarily result in a decline in social stability or cohesion.Rather, the growth in a so ciety’s density (the number of people living in a community) and consequent increasingly specialized division of labor can result in simply a different type of social cohesion. Abnormal Forms. (1) Anomic Division of Labor is cause by the lack of regulation or a weakened common morality that can occur in modern society. Usually surfaces when there are industrial or commercial crises or there are conflicts between capital and labor. Durkheim discusses conditions of the worker under capitalism and it somewhat very close to Marx’s description of lienation and exploitation. However, he says that situations like this are not in the normal form but is something resulting from an individual who does not have a sufficient vision of the whole process of production. (2) Forced Division of Labor is where the division of labor is not allowed to develop spontaneously and where some act to protect themselves and their positions. It is the consequence of a structural condition where t he distribution of social functions does not match to the distribution of natural talents. (3) Another Abnormal Form.Durkheim’s observation that the function of an organism can become more active only on the condition that they also become more continuous one organ can do more only if the other organs do more, and vice versa. When this continuity is missing then the functional activity of the specialized parts decreases, resulting in wasted effort and loss of productive capacity. Increased activity also results to a stronger bond of solidarity but when mismanagement arises, the activity of the worker is reduced, functions become discontinuous, and solidarity is destabilized.